Information de reference pour ce titreAccession Number: | 00001803-200404030-00008.
|
Author: | Coyle, Yvonne Marie
|
Institution: | Internal Medicine, Harold C. Simmons Cancer Center, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, USA
|
Title: | The effect of environment on breast cancer risk.[Review]
|
Source: | Breast Cancer Research & Treatment. 84(3):273-288, April 2004.
|
Abstract: | Summary: Environmental factors are believed to explain a large proportion of breast cancer incidence. Known risk factors for breast cancer, which are related to the reproductive life of women, and other factors, such as inheritance and socioeconomic status, explain only about half of the breast cancer cases in the US. Ionizing radiation is a well established environmental risk factor for breast cancer. Chemicals that induce mammary cancer in rodents have served as leads for studies in humans, but occupational and environmental exposure to these chemicals have for the most part lacked association with breast cancer risk. However, there is recent evidence in rats that cadmium at very low doses acts as an estrogen mimic, indicating a need to investigate the effects of metals on breast cancer risk. Studies suggest that circadian rhythm disruption is linked with breast cancer, but too few studies have been done to be conclusive. Over the years, cigarette smoking as a risk factor for breast cancer has remained controversial. However, recent research has found passive smoke exposure to be associated with increased breast cancer risk, which is hypothesized to be accounted for on the basis of an antiestrogenic effect of smoking. Solar radiation has been noted to be associated with reduced breast cancer, supporting the hypothesis that vitamin D plays a protective role in reducing this risk. Although, most of the environmental factors discussed in this review have not been convincingly found to influence breast cancer risk, research suggests that environmental exposure in combination with genetic pre-disposition, age at exposure, and hormonal milieu have a cumulative effect on breast cancer risk.
(C)2004 Kluwer Academic Publishers
|
Author Keywords: | breast cancer risk; environmental risk factors.
|
References: | 1. Parkin DM, Pisani P, Ferlay J: Estimates of the worldwide incidence of 25 major cancers in 1990. Int J Cancer 80: 827-841, 1999
2. Lacey JV, Devesa SS, Brinton LA:. Recent trends in breast cancer incidence and mortality. Environ Mol Mutagen 39: 82-88, 2002
3. Key TJ, Verkasalo PK, Banks E: Epidemiology of breast cancer. Lancet 2: 133, 2001
4. Madigan MP, Ziegler RG, Benichou J, Byrne C, Hoover RN: Proportion of breast cancer cases in the United States explained by well-established risk factors. JNCI 87: 1681, 1995
5. Rockhill B, Weinberg CR, Newman B: Population attributable fraction estimation for established breast cancer risk factors: considering the issues of high prevalence and unmodifiability. Am J Epidemiol 147: 826-833, 1998
6. Evans JS, Wennberg JE, McNeil BJ: The influence of diagnostic radiograph on the incidence of breast cancer and leukemia. N Eng J Med 315: 810-815, 1986
7. Verkasalo PK, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M, Pakkula E: Genetic predisposition, environment and cancer incidence: a nationwide twin study in Finland, 1976-1995. Int J Cancer 83: 743-749, 1999
8. Lichtenstein P, Holm NV, Verkasalo PK, Iliadou A, Kaprio J, Kosenvuo M, Pukkula E, Skytthe A, Hemminki K: Environmental and heritable factors in the causation of cancer. N Eng J Med 343: 78-85, 2000
9. Pollner F: A holistic approach to breast cancer research. Environ Health Persp 101: 116-120, 1993
10. Ramazzini B: De Morbis Artificium Diatriba (Wright WC 91940): The Latin Text of 713. Revised with Translations and Notes. University Chicago Press, Chicago, 1700
11. Davis DL, Axelrod D, Osborne M, Telang N, Bradlow HL, Sittner E: Avoidable causes of breast cancer: the known, unknown, and the suspected. Ann NY Acad Sci 853: 112-128, 1997
12. Huff J, Boyd J, Barrett JC: Hormonal Carcinogenesis and Environmental Influences: Background and Overview. Wiley-Liss, Inc., 1996
13. Hilakivi-Clarke L, Cabanes A, Olivo S, Kerr L, Bouker KB, Clarke R: Do estrogens always increase breast cancer risk? J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 80: 163-174, 2002
14. Russo J, Hu YF, Yang X, Russo IH. Chapter 1: developmental, cellular, and molecular basis of human cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 27: 17-37, 2000
15. Dunnick JK, Elwell MR, Huff, J, Barrett JC: Chemically induced mammary gland cancer in the National Toxicology Program's carcinogenesis bioassay. Carcinogenesis 16: 173-179, 1995
16. Huff J: Breast cancer risks from environmental chemicals. Eur J Oncol 5: 127-132, 2000
17. US Environmental Protection Agency. Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program: What are Endocrine Disruptors? Office of Pesticide Program and Toxic Substances, Washington DC, 2002, 2001
18. Rudel RA, Brody JG, Spengler JD, Vallarino J, Geno PW, Sun G, Yan A: Identification of selected hormonally active agents and animal mammary carcinogens in commercial and residential air and dust samples. J Air Waste Manage Assoc 51: 499-513, 2001
19. Robison AK, Sirbasku DA, Stancel GM: DDT supports the growth of an estrogen-responsive tumor. Toxiol Lett 27: 109-113, 1985
20. Nesaretnam K, Hales E, Sohail M, Krausz T, Darbre P: 3,3',4,4'-tetrahlorobiphenyl (TCB) can enhance DMBA-induced mammary carcinogenesis in the rat. Eur J Cancer, 34: 389-393, 1998
21. Vineis P, D'Amore F: The role of occupational exposure and immunodeficiency in B-cell malignancies. Working Group on the Epidemiology of Hematolymphopoietic Malignancies in Italy. Epidemiology 3: 266-270, 1992
22. Goldberg MS, Labreche F: Occupational risk factors for female breast cancer: a review. Occup Environ Med 53: 145-156, 1996
23. Kutz FW, Wood PH, Bottimore DP: Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in human adipose tissue. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 120: 1-82, 1991
24. Soto AM, Sonnenshein C, Chung KL, Fernandez MF, Olea N, Serrano FO: The E-SCREEN assay as a tool to identify estrogens: an update on estrogenic environmental pollutants. Environ Health Persp 103(Suppl 7): 113-122, 1995
25. Korach KS, Sarver P, Chae K, McLachlan JA, McKinney JD: Estrogen receptor-binding activity of polychlorinated biphenyls: conformationally restricted structural probes. Mol Pharmaol, 33: 120-126, 1988
26. Kelce WR, Stone CR, Laws SC, Gray LE, Kemppainen JA, Wilson EM: Persistent DDT metabolite p,p'-DDE is a potent androgen receptor antagonist. Nature 375: 581-585, 1995
27. Bulger WH, Kupfer D: Estrogenic action of DDT analogs. Am J Ind Med 4: 163, 1983
28. Wolff MS, Toniolo PG, Lee EW, Rivera M, Dubin N: Blood levels of organochlorine residues and risk of breast cancer. JNCI 85: 648, 1993
29. Guttes S, Failing K, Neumann J, Kleinstein J, Georgii S, Brunn H: Chloroganic pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in breast tissue of women with benign and malignant breast disease. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 35: 140-147, 1998
30. Romieu I, Hernandez-Avila M, Lazano-Ponce E, Weber J, Dewailly E: Breast cancer, lactation history, and serum organochlorines. Am J Epidemiol 152: 363-370, 2000
31. Olaya-Contreras P, Rodriguez-Villamil J, Posso-Valencia HJ, Cortez JE: Organochlorine exposure and breast cancer risk in Colombian women. Cad Saude Publica 14: 125-132, 1998
32. Warner M, Eskenazi B, Mocarelli P, Gerthoux PM, Samuels S, Needham L, Patterson D, Brambilla P: Serum dioxin concentrations and breast cancer risk in the Seveso Women's Health Study. Environ Health Persp 110: 625-628, 2002
33. Hoyer AP, Grandjean P, Jorgensen T, Brock JW, Hartvig HB: Organochlorine exposure and risk of breast cancer. Lancet 352: 1816-1820, 1998
34. Cocco P, Kazerouni N, Zahm SH: Cancer mortality and environmental exposure to DDE in the United States. Environ Health Persp 108: 1-4, 2000
35. Krieger N, Wolff MS, Hiatt RA, Rivra M, Vogelman J, Orentreich N: Breast cancer and serum organochlorines: a prospective study among white, black, and Asian women. JNCI 86: 589-599, 1994
36. Mendonca GA, Eluf-Neto J, Andrada-Serpa MJ, Carmo PA, Barreto HH, Inomata ON, Kussumi TA: Organochlorines and breast cancer: a case-control study in Brazil. Int J Cancer 83: 596-600, 1999
37. van't Veer P, Lobbezoo IE, Martin-Moreno JM, Guallar E, Gomez-Aracena J, Kardinaal AFM, Kahlmeier L, Martin BC, Strain JJ, Thamm M, Van Zoonen P, Bert A, Huttunen JK, Kok FJ: DDT (dicophane) and postmenopausal breast cancer in Europe: case-control study. BMJ 315: 81-85, 1997
38. Zheng T, Holford TR, Mayne ST, Ward B, Carter D, Owens PH, Dubrow R, Zahm SH, Boyle P, Archibeque S, Tessari J: DDE and DDT in breast adipose tissue and risk of female breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 150: 453-458, 1999
39. Stellman SD, Djordjevic MV, Britton JA, Muscat JE, Citron ML, Kemeny M, Busch E, Gong L: Breast cancer risk in relation to adipose concentrations of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in Long Island, New York. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 9: 1241-1249, 2000
40. Aronson KJ, Miller AB, Woolcott, CG, Sterns EE, McCready DR, Lickley LA, Fish EB, Hiraki GY, Holloway C, Ross T, Hauna WM, SenGupta SK, Weber JP: Breast adipose tissue concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls and other organochlorines and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 9: 55-63, 2000
41. Zheng T, Holford TR, Tessari J, Mayne ST, Owens PH, Ward B, Carter D, Boyle P, Dubrow R, Archibeque-Engle S, Zahm SH: Breast cancer risk associated with congeners of polychlorinated biphenyls. Am J Epidemiol 152: 50-58, 2000
42. Demers A, Ayotte P, Brisson J, Dodin S, Robert J, Dweailly E: Risk and aggressiveness of breast cancer in relation to plasma organochlorine concentrations. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 9: 161-166, 2000
43. Wolff MS, Berkowitz GS, Brower S, Seni R, Bleiweiss IJ, Tartter P, Pace B, Roy N, Wallenstein S, Weston A: Organochlorine exposures and breast cancer risk in New York women. Environ Res 84: 151-161, 2000
44. Moysich KB, Ambrosone CB, Vena JE, Sheilds PG, Mendola P, Kostyniak P, Greizerstein H, Graham S, Marshall JR, Schisterman, EF, Freudenheim JL: Environmental organochlorine exposure and postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 7: 181-188, 1998
45. Millikan R, DeVoto E, Duell EJ, Tse CK, Savitz DA, Beach J, Edmiston S, Jackson S, Newman B: Dichlorodiphenyldi-chloroethene, polychlorinated biphenyls, and breast cancer among African-American and white women in North Carolina. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 9: 1233-1240, 2000
46. Hunter DJ, Hankinson SE, Laden E, Colditz GA, Manson JE, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Wolff MS: Plasma organochlorine levels and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 337: 1253-1258, 1997
47. Helzlsouer KJ, Alberg AJ, Huang HY, Hoffman SC, Strickland PT, Brock JW, Burse VW, Needham LL, Bell DA, Lavigne JA, Yager JD, Comstock GW: Serum concentrations of organochlorine compounds and the subsequent development of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 8: 525-532, 1999
48. Hoyer AP, Jorgensen T, Grandjean P, Jorgensen T, Brock JW, Hartvig HB: Repeated measurements of organochlorine exposure and breast cancer risk (Denmark). Cancer Cause Control 11: 177-184, 2000
49. Ward EM, Schulte P, Grajewski B, Anderson A, Patterson Jr DG, Turner W, Jellum E, Deddrens, JA, Friedland J, Roeleveld N, Waters M, Butler MA, DiPietro E, Needham LL: Serum organochlorine levels and breast cancer: a nested case-control study of norwegian women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 9: 1357-1367, 2000
50. Wolff MS, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Dubin N, Toniolo P: Risk of breast cancer and organochlorine exposure. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 9: 271-277, 2000
51. Dorgan JF, Brock JW, Rothman N, Needham LL, Miller R, Stephenson HE, Schussler N, Taylor PR: Serum organochlorine pesticides and PCBs and breast cancer risk: results from a prospective analysis (USA). Cancer Cause Control 10: 1-11, 1999
52. Bagga D, Anders KH, Wang HJ, Roberts E, Glaspy JA: Organochlorine pesticide content of breast adipose tissue from women with breast cancer and control subjects. JNCI 92: 750-753, 2000
53. Liljegren G, Hardell L, Lindstrom G, Dahl P, Magnuson A: Case-control study on breast cancer and adipose tissue concentrations of congener specific polychlorinated biphenyls, DDE and hexachlorobenzene. Eur J Cancer Prev 7: 135-140, 1998
54. Massalo-Rauhamaa H, Hasanen E, Pyysalo H, Antervo K, Kauppila R, Pantzar P: Occurrence of beta-hexachlorocyclohexane in breast cancer patients. Cancer 66: 2124-2128, 1990
55. Laden F, Hankinson SE, Wolff MS, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Hunter DJ: Plasma organochlorine levels and the risk of breast cancer: an extended follow-up in the Nurses' Health Study. Int J Cancer 91: 568-574, 2001
56. Schecter A, Toniolo P, Dai LC, Thuy TB, Wolff MS: Blood levels of DDT and breast cancer risk among women living in the north of Vietnam. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 33: 453-456, 1997
57. Lopez-Carrillo L, Blair A, Lopez-Cervantes M, Cebrian M, Rueda C, Reyes R, Mohar A, Bravo J: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane serum levels and breast cancer risk: a case-control study from Mexico. Cancer Res 57: 3728-3732, 1997
58. Gammon MD, Wolff MS, Neugut AI, Eng SM, Teitelbaum SL, Britton JA, Terry MB, Levin B, Stellman SD, Kabat GC, Haten M, Senie R, Berkowitz G, Bradlow L, Garbowski G, Maffeo C, Montalvan P, Kemeny M, Citron M, Schnabel F, Schuss A, Hajdu S, Vinceguerra V, Niguidula N, Ireland K, Santella RM: Environmental toxins and breast cancer on Long Island II. Organochlorine compound levels in blood. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 11: 686-697, 2002
59. Zheng T, Holford TR, Mayne ST, Tessari J, Ward B, Carter D, Owens PH, Boyle P, Dubrow R, Archibeque-Engle S, Dawood O, Zahm SH: Risk of female breast cancer associated with serum polychlorinated biphenyls and 1,1-dichloro-2,2'-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 9: 167-174, 2000
60. Demers A, Ayotte P, Brisson J, Dodin S, Robert J, Dewailly E: Plasma concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls and the risk of breast cancer: a congener-specific analysis. Am J Epidemiol 155: 629-635, 2002
61. Holford TR, Zheng T, Mayne ST, Zahm SH, Tessari JD: Joint effects of none polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners on breast cancer risk. Int J Epidemiol 29: 975-982, 2000
62. Laden F, Collman G, Iwamoto K, Alberg AJ, Berkowitz GS, Freudenheim JL, Hankinson SE, Helslsouer KJ, Holford TR, Huang HY, Moysich KB, Tessari JD, Wolff MS, Zheng T, Hunter DJ: 1,1-Dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene and polychlorinated biphenyls and breast cancer: combined analysis of five US studies. JNCI, 93: 768-776, 2001
63. Moysich KB, Shields PG, Freudenheim JL, Schistrman EF, Vena JE, Kostyniak P, Greizerstein H, Marshall JR, Graham S, Ambrosome CB: Polychlorinated biphenyls, cytochrome P4501A1 polymorphism, and postmenopausal breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 8: 41-44, 1999
64. Woolcott CG, Aronson KJ, Hanna WM, SenGupta SK, McCready DR, Sterns EE, Miller AB: Organochlorines and breast cancer risk by receptor status, tumor size, and grade (Canada). Cancer Cause Control 12: 395-404, 2001
65. Wolff MS, Camann D, Gammon M, Stellman SC: Proposed PCB congener groupings for epidemiological studies. Environ Health Persp 105: 13-14, 1997
66. Land CE: Studies of cancer and radiation dose among atomic bomb survivors. The example of breast cancer. JAMA 274: 402-407, 1995
67. Adami H, Signorello LB, Trichopoulos D: Towards and understanding of breast cancer etiology. Seminars Cancer Biol 8: 255-262, 1998
68. Boice Jr JD: Radiation and breast carcinogenesis. Medical Pediatric Oncol 36: 508-513, 2001
69. Dupont WD, Page DL, Parl FF, Vnencak-Jones CL, Plummer WD, Rados MS, Schuyler PA: Long-term risk of breast cancer in women with fibropadenoma. N Engl J Med 331: 10-15, 1994
70. Band PR, Le ND, Fang R, Deschamps M, Gallagher RP, Yang P: Identification of occupational cancer risks in British Columbia. A population-based case-control study of 995 incident breast cancer cases by menopausal status, controlling for confounding factors. J Occup Environ Med 42: 284-310, 2000
71. Blair A, Stewart PA, Tolbert PE, Grauman D, Moran FX, Vaught J, Rayner J: Cancer and other causes of death among a cohort of dry cleaners. Br J Ind Med 47: 162-168, 1990
72. Shannon HS, Haines T, Bernholz C, Julian JA, Verma DK, Jamieson E, Walsh C: Cancer morbidity in lamp manufacturing workers. Am J Ind Med 14: 281-290, 1988
73. Mikoczy Z, Schutz A, Hagmar L: Cancer incidence and mortality among Swedish leather tanners. Occup Environ Med 51: 530-535, 1994
74. Anttila A, Pukkala E, Sallmen M, Hernberg S, Hemminki K: Cancer incidence among Finnish workers exposed to halogenated hydrocarbons. J Occup Environ Med 37: 797-806, 1995.
75. Pukkala E: Cancer incidence among Finnish oil refinery workers, 1971-1994. J Occup Environ Med 40: 675-679, 1998
76. Habel LA, Stanford JL, Vaughan TL, Rossing MA, Voigt LF, Weiss NS, Daling JR: Occupation and breast cancer risk in middle-aged women. J Occup Environ Med 37: 349-356, 1995
77. Coogan PF, Clapp RW, Newcomb PA, Mittendorf R, Bogdan G, Baron JA, Longnecker MP: Variation in female breast cancer by occupation. Am J Ind Med 30: 430-437, 1996
78. Dean AG, Imrey HH, Dusich K, Hall WN: Adjusting morbidity ratios in two communities using risk factor prevalence in cases. Am J Epidemiol 127: 654-662, 1988
79. Marcus PM, Savitz DA, Millikan RC, Morgenstern H: Female breast cancer and trihalomethane levels in drinking water in North Carolina. Epidemiology 9: 156-160, 1998
80. Lewis-Michl EL, Melius JM, Kallenbach LR, Ju CL, Talbot TO, Orr MF, Lauridsen PE: Breast cancer risk and residence near industry or traffic in Nassau and Suffolk Counties, Long Island, New York. Arch Environ Health 51: 255-265, 1995
81. Aschengrau A, Paulu C, Ozonoff D: Tetrachloroethylene-contaminated drinking water and the risk of breast cancer. Environ Health Persp 106(Suppl 4): 947-953, 1998
82. Cantor KP, Stewart PA, Brinton LA, Dosemeci M: Occupational exposures and female breast cancer mortality in the United States. J Occup Med 37: 336-348, 1995
83. Martin MB, Reiter R, Pham T, Avellantet YR, Camara J, Lahm M, Pentecost E, Pratap K, Gilmore BA, Divekar S, Dagata RS, Bull JL, Stoica A: Estrogen-like activity of metals in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Endocrinology 14: 2425-2436, 2003
84. Johnson MD, Kenney N, Stoica A, Hilakivi-Clarke L, Singh B, Chepko G, Clarke R, Sholler PF, Lirio AA, Foss C, Reiter R, Trock B, Paik S, Martin MB. Cadmium mimics the in vivo effects of estrogen in the uterus and mammary gland. Nat Med 9: 1081-1084, 2003
85. Cook DC, Dent O, Hewitt D: Breast cancer following multiple chest fluoroscopy: the Ontario experience. Can Med Assoc J 111: 406-409, 1974
86. Shore RE, Hemplemann LH, Kowaluk E, Mansur PS, Pasternack BS, Albert RE, Haughie GE: Breast neoplasms in women treated with X-rays for acute postpartum mastitis. JNCI 59: 813-822, 1977
87. Shore RE, Hildreth N, Woodward ED, Dvoretsky P, Hempelmann L, Pasternack B: Breast cancer among women given X-ray therapy for acute postpartum mastitis. JNCI 77: 689-696, 1986
88. Tokunaga M, Land CE, Tokuoka S, Nishimori I, Soda M, Akiba S: Incidence of females breast cancer among atomic bomb survivors, 1950-1985. Radiat Res 138: 209-223, 1994
89. Sadetzki S, Chetrit A, Modan B: A 45-year follow-up of people treated by X-ray for a benign condition (tinea capitis) during childhood. Proc Am Assoc Cancer Res 42: 408-409, 2001
90. Neglia JP, Friedman DL, Yasui Y, Mertens AC, Hammond S, Stovall M, Donaldson SS, Meadows AT, Robison LL: Second malignant neoplasm in five-year survivors of childhood cancer: childhood cancer survivor study. JNCI 93: 618-629, 2001
91. IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Ionizing Radiation, Part I: X- and Gamma-radiation and Neutrons. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, No. 75. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2000
92. Rafnsson V, Tulinius H, Jonasson JG, Hrafnkelsson J: Risk of breast cancer in female flight attendants: a population-based study (Iceland). Cancer Cause Control 12: 95-101, 2001
93. Pukkala E, Auvinen A, Wahlberg G: Incidence of cancer among Finnish airline cabin attendants, 1967-1992. BMJ 311: 649-652, 1995
94. Blettner M, Zeeb H, Langner I, Hammer GP, Schafft T: Mortality from cancer and other causes among Airline Cabin Attendants in Germany, 1960-1997. Am J Epidemiol 156: 556-565, 2002
95. Stevens RG: Electric power use and breast cancer: a hypothesis. Am J Epidemiol 125: 556-561, 1987
96. Shah PN, Mhatre MC, Kothari LS: Effects of melatonin on mammary carcinogenesis in intact and pinealectomized rats in varying photoperiods. Cancer Res 44: 3404-3407, 1984
97. Demers PA, Thomas DB, Rosenblatt KA, Jimenez LM, McTiernan A, Stalsberg H, Stemhagen A, Thompson WD, Curnen MG, Satariano W: Occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields and breast cancer in men. Am J Epidemiol 134: 340-347, 1991
98. Tynes T, Andersen A: Electromagnetic fields and male breast cancer. Lancet 336: 1596, 1990
99. Matanoski GM, Breysse PN, Elliott EA: Electromagnetic field exposure and male breast cancer. Lancet 337: 737, 1991
100. McDowall ME: Mortality of persons resident in the vicinity of electricity transmission facilities. Br J Cancer 53: 271-279, 1986
101. Wertheimer N, Leeper E: Adult cancer related to electrical wires near the home. Int J Epidemiol 11: 345-355, 1982
102. Wertheimer N, Leeper E: Magnetic field exposure related to cancer subtypes. Ann NY Acad Sci 502: 43-54, 1987
103. Schreiber GH, Swaen GM, Meijers JM, Slangen J, Sturmans F: Cancer mortality and residence near electricity transmission equipment: a retrospective cohort study. Int J Epidemiol 22: 9-15, 1993
104. Caplan LS, Schoenfeld, O'Leary ES, Leske MC: Breast cancer and electromagnetic fields - a review. Ann Epidemiol 10: 31-44, 2000
105. Verkasalo PK, Pukkala E, Kaprio J, Heikkila KV, Kosenvuo M: Magnetic fields of high voltage power lines and risk of cancer in Finnish adults: nationwide cohort study. Br Med J 313: 104710-104751, 1996
106. Li CY, Theriault G, Lin RS: Residential exposure to 60-Hertz magnetic fields and adult cancers in Taiwan. Epidemiology 8: 25-30, 1997
107. Feychting M, Forssen U, Rutqvist LE, Ahlbem A: Magnetic fields and breast cancer in Swedish adults residing near high-voltage power lines. Epidemiology 9: 392-397, 1998
108. Coogan PF, Aschengrau A: Exposure to power frequency magnetic fields and risk of breast cancer in the Upper Cape Cod Cancer Incidence Study. Arch Environ Health 53: 359-367, 1998
109. Gammon MD, Schoenberg JB, Britton JA, Kelsey JL, Stanford JL, Malone KE, Coates RJ, Brogan DJ, Potischman N, Swanson CA, Brinton LA: Electric blanket use and breast cancer risk among younger women. Am J Epidemiol 148: 556-563, 1998
110. Vena JE, Graham S, Hellman R, Swanson M, Brasure J: Use of electric blankets and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 134: 180-185, 1991
111. Vena JE, Freudenheim JL, Marshall JR, Laughlin R, Swanson M, Graham S: Risk of premenopausal breast cancer and use of electric blankets. Am J Epidemiol 140: 974-979, 1994
112. Wertheimer N, Leeper E: Re: 'risk of premenopausal breast cancer and use of electric blankets' and 'use of electric blankets and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer'. Am J Epidemiol 142: 1344-1345, 1996
113. Vena JE, Freudenheim JL, Marshall JR, Swanson M, Graham S: Re: 'risk of premenopausal breast cancer and use of electric blankets' and 'use of electric blankets and risk of premenopausal breast cancer'. Am J Epidemiol, 142: 1345, 1995
114. Muir C, Waterhouse J, Mack T, Powell J, Whelan S: Cancer Incidence in Five Continents. Vol. 5. IARC Scientific Publication No. 88. International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, 1987
115. Mason TJ, McKay FW, Hoover R, Blott WJ, Fraumeni JF: Atlas of cancer mortality for US nonwhites: 1950-1969. DHEW Publication No. [NIH] 76-1204. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1975
116. Mench HR, Henderson BE: Cancer incidence rates in the Pacific Basin. NCI Monog 53: 119-124, 1978
117. Hahn R: 1986 Cancer Mortality Advance Data. Centers for Disease Control, Atlanta, 1989
118. Garland C, Garland F: Do sunlight and vitamin D reduce the risk of colon cancer? Int J Epidemiol 9: 227-231, 1980
119. Garland C, Shekelle RB, Barrett-Connor E, Criqui MH, Rossof AH, Paul O: Vitamin D and calcium and risk of colorectal cancer: a 19-year prospective study in men. Lancet 1: 307-309, 1985
120. Gorham ED, Garland CF, Garland FC: Acid haze air pollution and breast and colon cancer mortality in 20 Canadian cities. Can J Public Health 80: 96-104, 1989
121. Garland FC, Garland CF, Gorham ED, Young JF: Geographic variation in breast cancer mortality in the United States: a hypothesis involving exposure to solar radiation. Prev Med 19: 6146-122, 1990
122. Gorham Ed, Garland FC, Garland CF: Sunlight and breast cancer incidence in the USSR. Int J Epidemiol 19: 820-824, 1990
123. Grant WB: An ecologic study of dietary and solar ultraviolet-B links to breast carcinoma mortality rates. Cancer 94: 272281, 2002
124. John EM, Schwartz GG, Dreon DM, Koo J: Vitamin D and breast cancer risk: the Nhanes I epidemiologic follow-up study, 1971 to 1992. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 8: 399-406, 1999
125. Davis S, Mirick DK, Stevens RG: Night shift work, light at night and risk of breast cancer. JNCI 93: 155715-155762, 2001
126. Schernhammer ES, Laden F, Speizer FE, Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Kawachi I, Colditz GA: Rotating night shift and risk of breast cancer in women participating in the nurses' health study. JNCI 93: 1563-1568, 2001
127. Blot WJ, Fraumeni Jr JF: Cancers of the lung and pleura. In: Shottenfeld D, Fraumeni Jr J (eds) Cancer Epidemiology and Prevention. Oxford University Press, New York, 1996, pp 637-665
128. Palmer JR, Rosenberg L: Cigarette smoking and the risk of breast cancer. Epidemiol Rev 15: 145-156, 1993
129. Hoffman D, Hoffman I, El-Bayoumy K: The less harmful cigarette: a controversial issue. A tribute to Ernst L. Wynder. Chem Res Toxicol 14: 767-790, 2001
130. IARC: Tobacco Smoking. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans. IARC Sci Publ No. 38. IARC, Lyon, France, 1986, pp 1-397
131. Li D, Zhang W, Shain AA, Hittleman WN: DNA adducts in normal tissue adjacent to breast cancer: a review. Cancer Detect Prev 23: 454-462, 1999
132. Perera FP, Estabrook A, Hewer A, Channing K, Rundle A, Mooney LA, Whyatt R, Phillips DH. Carcinogen-DNA adducts in human breast tissue. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 4: 233-238, 1995
133. Conway K, Edmiston SN, Cui L, Dronin SS, Pang J, He M, Tse CK, Geradts J, Dressler L, Liu ET, Millikan R, Newman B: Prevalence and spectrum of P53 mutations associated with smoking in breast cancer. Cancer Res 62: 1987-1995, 2002
134. Santella RM, Gammon MD, Zhang YJ, Motykiewicz G, Young TL, Hayes SC, Terry MB, Schoenberg JB, Brinton LA, Bose S, Teitlebaum SL, Hibshoosh H: Immunohistochemical analysis of polycylic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adducts in breast tumor tissue. Cancer Lett 154: 143-149, 2000
135. Rundle A, Tang D, Hibshoosh H, Estabrook A, Schnabel F, Cao W, Grumet S, Perera FP: The relationship between genetic damage from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in breast tissue and breast cancer. Carcinogenesis 21: 1281-1289, 2000
136. Rundle A, Tang D, Hibshoosh H, Schnabel F, Kelly A, Levine R, Zhou J, Link B, Peera F: Molecular epidemiologic studies of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adducts and breast cancer. Environ Mol Mutagen 39: 201-207, 2002
137. Li D, Wang M, Firozi PF, Chang P, Zhang W, Baer-Dubowska W, Moorthy B, Vulimiri SV, Goth-Golstein R, Weyland EH, DiGiovanni J: Characterization of a major aromatic DNA adduct detected in human breast tissues. Environ Mol Mutagen 39: 193-200, 2002
138. Morabia A: Smoking (active and passive) and breast cancer: epidemiologic evidence up to June 2001. Environ Mol Mutagen 39: 89-95, 2002
139. Terry PD, Rohan TE: Cigarette smoking and the risk of breast cancer in women: a review of the literature. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 11: 953-971, 2002
140. Baron J, Newcomb PA, Longnecker MP, Mittendorf R, Storer BE, Clapp RW, Bogdan G, Yuen J: Cigarette smoking and breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 5: 399-403, 1996
141. Baron JA: Smoking and estrogen-related disease. Am J Epidemiol 119: 9-22, 1984
142. Baron JA, La Vecchia C, Levi F: The antiestrogenic effect of cigarette smoking in women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 162: 502-514, 1990
143. Innes KE, Byers TE: Smoking during pregnancy and breast cancer risk in very young women (United States). Cancer Cause Control 12: 179-185
144. Kropp S, Chang-Claude J: Active and passive smoking and risk of breast cancer by age 50 years among German women. Am J Epidemiol 156: 616-626, 2002
145. Egan KM, Stampfer MJ, Hunter D, Hankinson S, Rosner BA, Holmes M, Willett W, Colditz GA: Active and passive smoking in breast cancer: prospective results from the Nurses' Health Study. Epidemiology 13: 138-145, 2002
146. Ambrosone CB, Sheilds P: Smoking as a risk factor for breast cancer. In: Bowcock A (ed) Breast cancer: Molecular Genetics, Pathogenesis and Therapeutics. Humana Press, Totawa, NJ, 2001, pp 519-536
147. Morabia A, Bernstein MS, Bouchardy I, Kurtz J, Morris MA: Breast cancer and passive smoking: the role of N-acetyl-transferase genotype. Am J Epidemiol 152: 226-232, 2000
148. Chang-Claude J, Kropp S, Jager B, Bartsch RH: Differential effect of NAT2 on the association between active and passive smoke exposure and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 11: 698-704, 2002
149. Williams JA, Phillips DH: Mammary expression of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes and their potential role in breast cancer. Cancer Res 60: 4667-4677, 2000
150. Richardson A: Is breast cancer caused by late exposure to a common virus? Med Hypotheses 48: 491-497, 1997
151. Rickinson AB, Kieff E: Epstein-Barr virus. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM (eds) Fields Virology. 3rd edn, Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, PA, 1996, pp 2397-2437
152. Niederman JC, Evans AC: Epstein-Barr virus. In: Evans AS, Kaslow RA (eds) Viral Infections in Humans. 4th edn, Plenum Publishing Corp., New York, 1997, pp 253-283
153. Yasui Y, Potter JD, Stanford JL, Rossing MA, Winget MD, Bronner M, Daling J: Breast cancer risk and 'delayed' primary Epstein-Barr virus infection. Can Epidemiol Biomark Prev 10: 9-16, 2001
154. Etkind P, Du J, Khan A, Pillitteri J, Wiernik PH: Mouse mammary tumor virus-like ENV gene sequences in human breast tumors and in a lymphoma of a breast cancer patient. Clin Cancer Res 6: 1273-1278, 2000
155. Trichopoulos D: Hypothesis: does breast cancer originate in utero? Lancet 335: 939-940, 1990
156. Potischman N, Troisi R: In-utero and early life exposures in relation to risk of breast cancer. Cancer Cause Control 10: 561-573, 1999
157. Colditz GA, Frazier AL: Models of breast cancer show that risk is set by events of early life: prevention efforts must shift focus. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 4: 567-571, 1995
158. Bojkova B, Ahlers I, Kubatka P, Mocikova K, Mnichova M, Ahlersova E: Repeated administration of carcinogen in critical developmental periods increases susceptibility of female Wistar: han rats to mammary carcinogenesis induction. Neoplasma 47: 230-233, 2000
159. Millikan R, DeVoto E, Newman B, Savitz D: Studying environmental influences and breast cancer risk: suggestions for an integrated population-based approach. Breast Cancer Res Treat 35: 79-89, 1995
160. Russo J, Hu YF, Yang X, Russo IH: Developmental, cellular, and molecular basis of human breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 27: 17-37, 2000
161. Russo IH, Russo J: Mammary gland neoplasia in long-term rodent studies. Environ Health Persp 104: 938-967, 1996
162. Whitten PL, Patisaul HB: Cross-species and interassay comparisons of phytoestrogen action. Environ Health Persp 109(Suppl 1): 5-20, 2001
163. Rothschild TC, Calhoun RE, Boylan ES: Effects of diethylstilbestrol exposure in utero on the genital tracts of female ACI rats. Exp Mol Pathol 48: 59-76, 1988
164. Chapin RE, Harris MW, Davis BJ, Ward SM, Wilson RE, Mauney MA, Lockhart AC, Smialowicz RJ, Moser VC, Burka LT, Collins BJ: The effects of perinatal/juvenile methoxychlor exposure on adult rat nervous, immune, and reproductive system function. Fundam Appl Toxicol 40: 138-157, 1997
165. Blanck HM, Marcus M, Tolbert PE, Rubin C, Henderson AK, Hertzberg VS, Zhang RH, Cameron L: Age at menarche and tanner stage in girls exposed in utero and postnatally to polybrominated biphenyl. Epidemiology 11: 641-647, 2000
166. Gladen BC, Rogan WJ: DDE and shortened duration of lactation in a northern Mexican town. Am J Public Health 85: 504-508, 1995
167. Rogan WJ, Gladen BC, McKinney JD, Carreras N, Hardy P, Thullen J, Tingelstad J, Tully M: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene (DDE) in human milk: effects on growth, morbidity, and duration of lactation. Am J Public Health 77: 1294-1297, 1987
168. Ramamoorthy K, Wang F, Chen IC, Safe S, Norris JD, McDonnell DP, Gaido KW, Bocchinfuso WP, Korach KS: Potency of combined estrogenic pesticides. Science 275: 405-406, 1997
169. Payne J, Rajapakse N, Wilkins M, Kortenkamp A: Prediction and assessment of the effects of mixtures of four xenoestrogens. Environ Health Persp 108: 983-987, 2000
170. Daniel V, Huber W, Bauer K, Suesal C, Conradt C, Opelz G: Associations of blood levels of PCB, HCHS, and HCB with numbers of lymphocyte subpopulations in vitro lymphocyte response, plasma cytokine levels, and immunoglobulin autoantibodies. Environ Health Persp 109: 173-178, 2001
171. Nordstrom M, Hardell L, Lindstrom G, Wingfors H, Hardell K, Linde AL: Concentrations of organochlorines related to titers of Epstein-Barr virus early antigen IgG as risk factors for hairy cell leukemia. Environ Health Persp 108: 441-445, 2000
172. Ho GYF, Kadish AS, Burk RD, Basu J, Palan PR, Mikhail M, Romney SL: HPV 16 and cigarette smoking as risk factors for high-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Int J Cancer 78: 281-285, 1998
173. Millikan R, DeVoto E, Duell EJ, Tse CK, Savitz DA, Beach J, Edmiston S, Jackson S, Newman B: Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethene, polychlorinated biphenyls, and breast cancer among African-American and white women in North Carolina. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 9: 1233-1240, 2000
174. Wolff MS, Anderson HA: Correspondence re: Schildkraut JM, Denmark-Wahnefried W, DeVoto E, Hughes C, Laseter JL, Newman B. Evironmental contaminants and body fat distribution. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 8: 179-183 (letter), 1999. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 8: 951-952, 1999
175. Schildkraut JM, Denmark-Wahnefried W, DeVoto E, Hughes C, Laseter JL, Newman B: Environmental contaminants and body fat distribution. Can Epidemiol Biomark Prev 8: 179-183, 1999
176. Blanck HM, Marcus M, Hertzberg V, Tolbert PE, Ruben C, Henderson AK, Zhang RH: Determinants of polybrominated biphenyl serum decay among women in the Michigan PBB cohort. Environ Health Persp 108: 147-152, 2000
177. Dorgan J, Reichman M, Judd JT, Brown C, Longcope C, Schatzkin A, Campbell WS, Franz C, Kahle L, Taylor PR: The relation to reported alcohol ingestion to plasma levels of estrogens and androgens in pre-menopausal women (Maryland, United States). Cancer Cause Control 5: 53-60, 1994
178. Nathanson KL, Wooster R, Weber BL: Breast cancer genetics: what we know and what we need. Nat Med 7: 552-556, 2001
179. Shields PG, Harris CC: Cancer risk and low-penetrance susceptibility genes in gene-environment interactions. J Clin Oncol 18: 2309-2315, 2000
180. Williams JA, Phillips DH: Mammary expression of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes and their potential role in breast cancer. Cancer Res 60: 4667-4677, 2000
181. Duell EJ, Millikan RC, Pittman GS, Winkel S, Lunn RM, Tse CK, Eaton A, Mohrenweiser HW, Newman B, Bell DA: Polymorphisms in the DNA repair gene XRCC1 and breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 10: 217-222, 2001
182. Gammon MD, Hibshoosh H, Terry MB, Bose S, Schoenberg JB, Brinton LA, Bernstein JL, Thompson WD: Cigarette smoking and other risk factors in relation to P53 expression in breast cancer among young women. Can Epidemiol Biomark Prev 8: 255-263, 1999
183. Olivier M, Hainaut P: TP53 mutation patterns in breast cancers: searching for clues of environmental carcinogenesis. Cancer Biol 11: 353-360, 2001
|
Language: | English.
|
Document Type: | Review.
|
Journal Subset: | Clinical Medicine.
|
ISSN: | 0167-6806
|
NLM Journal Code: | a8x, 8111104
|
Annotation(s) | |
|
|